Monadic lifting and
slot-based programming can be combined in pleasant ways. The key idea is: if
T is a type with a slot-based interface then a monadic type
M<T> can easily replicate
T's interface by appropriate lifting; for instance, this is the
Maybe monad with slot compatibility:
template<template<typename> class M,typename T>
struct slot_monad
{
template<typename Slot,typename ...Args>
auto operator()(Slot&& s,Args&&... args)const
{
return mlift<M>(std::forward<Slot>(s))(
static_cast<const M<T>&>(*this),
std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
template<typename Slot,typename ...Args>
auto operator()(Slot&& s,Args&&... args)
{
return mlift<M>(std::forward<Slot>(s))(
static_cast<M<T>&>(*this),
std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
};
template<typename T>
struct maybe:boost::optional<T>,slot_monad<maybe,T>
{
// the rest of the interface, including >>= overloads,
// remains the same
};
slot_monad<M> provides the required magic. How does it work? Remember that slots are functors, and as such can be functionally transformed, and, in our case, lifted to the monadic realm of M; so, M<T> can replicate T's interface by reacting to any slot s with a corresponding call to mlift<M>(s). M<T> effectively becomes a drop-in replacement of T (with all the added semantics brought in by M).
Let us see this in action. All the examples in this entry are gathered into a
program runnable in a C++11 environment with C++14 automatic return type detection (such as GCC 4.8 with
-std=c++1y). Boost is also needed.
Dealing with optional objects
vector is the slot-based replica of
std::vector we already studied in a
previous entry. both
vector and
maybe has been equipped with iostream
operator<< overloads for testing purposes.
maybe<vector<int>> v=vector<int>{};
for(int i=0;i<100;++i)v(push_back,i);
std::cout<<mlift<maybe>(accumulate())(v(begin),v(end),0)<<"\n";
Output: 4950
maybe<vector> behaves as a regular (slot-based) vector and accepts push_back without problems. Using standard algorithms on this class is, however, a bit more complicated: std::acummulate(v(begin),v(end),0) wouldn't work because v(begin) and v(end) return maybe<vector::iterator>s, which are not iterators —iterator interfaces, based on operator*, operator++, etc., are not easly translatable to slot member functions. So, we have to lift the algorithm, for which we need a polymorphic version of it:
struct accumulate
{
template<class InputIterator, class T>
T operator()(
InputIterator first,InputIterator last,T init)const
{
return std::accumulate(first,last,init);
}
template<class InputIterator,class T,class BinaryOperation>
T operator()(
InputIterator first,InputIterator last,T init,
BinaryOperation binary_op)const
{
return std::accumulate(first,last,init,binary_op);
}
};
Dealing with Nothing
As guaranteed by the Maybe monad, passing Nothing just works: member functions simply do not do anything and return Nothing.
maybe<vector<int>> v=boost::none;
for(int i=0;i<100;++i)v(push_back,i);
std::cout<<mlift<maybe>(accumulate())(v(begin),v(end),0)<<"\n";
Output: none
Optional member functions
Duality between slot-based classes and slots allows us to pass monadic types also as slots.
maybe<vector<int>> v=vector<int>{};
for(int i=0;i<100;++i)v(maybe<push_back_s>{},i);
std::cout<<mlift<maybe>(accumulate())(v(begin),v(end),0)<<"\n";
Output: 0
Here, we use a maybe<push_back_s> (push_back_s being the type of push_back) which happens to be Nothing, so the vector is not added any element.
Introducing the List monad
This monad maintains a collection of objects of the underlying type; binding to
f consists in invoking repeatedly
f for each of the objects and gathering the results into another list:
template<typename T>
struct mlist:std::list<T>,slot_monad<mlist,T>
{
using super=std::list<T>;
using super::super;
mlist(const T& t){super::push_back(t);}
mlist(T&& t){super::emplace_back(std::move(t));}
};
template<typename T,typename F>
auto operator>>=(const mlist<T>& m,F&& f)
{
decltype(f(std::declval<T>())) ret={};
for(const auto& t:m)ret.splice(ret.end(),f(t));
return std::move(ret);
}
template<typename T,typename F>
auto operator>>=(mlist<T>& m,F&& f)
{
decltype(f(std::declval<T>())) ret={};
for(auto& t:m)ret.splice(ret.end(),f(t));
return std::move(ret);
}
mlist also has an iostream operator<< that we don't show here. This monad allows us then to carry out simultaneous operations on a collection of objects:
mlist<vector<int>> ml={{0,1},{1,2}}; // #1
std::cout<<ml(size)<<"\n";
ml(push_back,1); // #2
std::cout<<ml<<"\n";
ml([](vector<int>& v){v(push_back,v(at,0));}); // #3
std::cout<<ml<<"\n";
Output:
{2,2}
{{0,1},{1,2}}
{{0,1,1},{1,2,1}}
In the use case #1, the results of size (std::size_ts) are compiled into an mlist<std::size_t> of their own. Use case #3 is interesting: much as we can pass any slot to mlist<vector<int>>, we can in fact pass any functor accepting vector<int> as its first parameter, such as the lambda function shown in the example. This property is exhibited by any open-ended slot-based class, that is, a class C that accepts any functor F as a permissible slot and invokes it for some underlying object O(C):
C(S,...) → S(O(C),...).
(As an effect of the duality pervading slot-based programming, plain slots such as push_back are in their turn open-ended classes.)
mlist and maybe
Different monadic types can be used jointly without surprises, as each contributes its own lifting. In the following example we deal with a list of potentially non-existent vector<int>s.
mlist<maybe<vector<int>>> ml=
{vector<int>{0,1},vector<int>{2,3},boost::none}; // #1
std::cout<<ml(size)<<"\n";
ml(push_back,1); // #2
std::cout<<ml<<"\n";
ml([](maybe<vector<int>>& v){v(push_back,v(at,0));}); // #3
std::cout<<ml<<"\n";
ml(push_back,mlist<int>{5,6,7,8}); // #4
std::cout<<ml<<"\n";
Output:
{2,2,none}
{{0,1,1},{2,3,1},none}
{{0,1,1,0},{2,3,1,2},none}
{{0,1,1,0,5,6,7,8},{2,3,1,2,5,6,7,8},none}
Use case #4 shows how lifted member functions accept monadic types in any argument position, not only for the first one: pushing back an mlist<int> is equivalent to pushing back each of its elements one by one.
Lists of commands
Remember that slots, by their being esentially functors, can be used with global function syntax (i.e. push_back(v) rather than v(push_back)). Combining this property with mlist allows us to work with collections of commands on collections of objects:
using namespace std::placeholders;
mlist<maybe<vector<int>>> ml=
{vector<int>{0,1},vector<int>{2,3},boost::none};
mlist<std::function<maybe<mvoid>(maybe<vector<int>>&)>>
commands=
{
pop_back,
std::bind(push_back,_1,0)
};
commands(ml);
std::cout<<ml<<"\n";
Output: {{0,0},{2,0},none}
The example also shows how slots can be bound much as any other regular functor.
Lifted functions on non-monadic objects
vector<int> v;
mlift<mlist>(push_back)(v,mlist<int>{0,1,2,3,4});
std::cout<<v<<"\n";
Output: {0,1,2,3,4}
vector<int> knows nothing about mlist, so push_back(v,mlist<int>{0,1,2,3,4}) woud not work. The problem is easily solved by lifting push_back.
Conclusions
Slot-based programming makes it immediate for monadic types to replicate the interfaces of their underlying types via lifting, which can be exploited to use a monad M<T> as a syntactically compatible replacement of T, with only small adjustments needed in some cases. Slot-class duality and joint use of different monadic realms combine in surprisingly flexible ways that allow for interesting behavioral transformations of non-monadic programs.
